Wine Cap

Metadata

Regulatory Status

China

• Status: Widely cultivated and consumed as a food. The S. rugosoannulata industry in China has expanded rapidly, with cultivation area reaching significant commercial scale. Recognized as an edible mushroom with functional food potential. Not listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as a medicinal agent.

United States

• Food status: Edible mushroom consumed by foragers and cultivators. Available through specialty mushroom growers and farmers’ markets. Not FDA GRAS-listed specifically.
• Dietary supplement: Not widely marketed as a dietary supplement in the US.
• Mycoremediation: Recognized as a bioremediation agent; Paul Stamets’ patent (US20050176583A1) includes S. rugosoannulata in mycofiltration applications.

European Union

• Food status: Consumed as a wild-foraged and cultivated edible mushroom in parts of Europe. Regulatory status for novel food or supplement claims is not established.

General

• Note: Primarily recognized as a culinary mushroom and mycoremediation agent worldwide. Medicinal applications are in early research phases and have not been codified in any pharmacopoeial system.

Conditions & Indications

Primary Indications (Preclinical Evidence)

• Immune modulation — The alpha-glucan PSRa-2 (MW 455.6 kDa), purified from S. rugosoannulata fruiting bodies, induced splenocyte proliferation and protected splenocytes against 5-fluorouracil-induced immunosuppression by restoring proliferation and secretion of TNF-alpha and IL-2. Heteropolysaccharide SRP (MW 27.52 kDa) significantly promoted macrophage phagocytosis activity and cell migration in RAW264.7 cells at concentrations of 25-200 mcg/mL.
• Antioxidant protection — Polysaccharide extracts demonstrate significant DPPH radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical scavenging, and reducing power. Polyphenolic compounds and ergothioneine contribute to antioxidant capacity.

Secondary Indications (Preliminary Evidence)

• Antitumor activity — Polysaccharide fractions demonstrate anti-proliferative effects in cancer cell lines in vitro. Mechanisms include immune-mediated cytotoxicity via macrophage and NK cell activation, and direct anti-proliferative effects.
• Hepatoprotective effects — Polysaccharides demonstrate protective effects against fatty liver in preclinical models, supporting hepatocyte survival and reducing lipid accumulation.
• Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects — In vitro and animal studies demonstrate blood glucose lowering and lipid-modulating effects. Pancreatic lipase-inhibiting polysaccharide has been structurally characterized, suggesting anti-obesity potential.
• Anti-colitis activity — S. rugosoannulata polysaccharide and its derivatives showed protective effects against dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in a 2025 study, indicating potential for inflammatory bowel disease management.

Emerging/Preclinical Indications

• Mycoremediation and environmental health — While not a direct human health indication, S. rugosoannulata mycelium effectively degrades E. coli and other waterborne pathogens, pharmaceutical micropollutants, and environmental contaminants through lignin-modifying enzyme systems (laccase, manganese peroxidase). This positions the species as a tool for water purification and environmental decontamination that indirectly benefits human health.
• Antiviral activity — Preclinical evidence suggests antiviral properties, though specific viral targets and mechanisms require further characterization.

Mechanism of Action

Primary Mechanisms

1. Alpha-glucan-mediated immunomodulation PSRa-2, a high-molecular-weight alpha-glucan (455.6 kDa) purified from S. rugosoannulata, activates immune cells through carbohydrate recognition receptors. It induces splenocyte proliferation and restores immune function in 5-fluorouracil-immunosuppressed models by stimulating TNF-alpha and IL-2 secretion. The alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glycosidic linkages of PSRa-2 are critical for receptor recognition and immune activation.

2. Heteropolysaccharide macrophage activation The heteropolysaccharide SRP (27.52 kDa), composed of glucose (35.79%), galactose (26.80%), glucuronic acid (9.92%), fructose (8.65%), xylose (7.92%), and minor sugars, activates RAW264.7 macrophages, promoting phagocytosis and cell migration. This polysaccharide shows no cytotoxicity to macrophages at active concentrations (25-200 mcg/mL), indicating selective immune activation without cellular damage.

3. Lignin-modifying enzyme environmental degradation S. rugosoannulata produces lignin-modifying enzymes (laccase, manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase) as part of its saprotrophic lifecycle. These enzymes are non-specific oxidative catalysts capable of degrading a wide range of organic pollutants, including pharmaceutical compounds, pesticide residues, aromatic hydrocarbons, and bacterial cell components. This enzymatic machinery underlies the mycoremediation capabilities.

Secondary Mechanisms

4. Pancreatic lipase inhibition Specific polysaccharide fractions inhibit pancreatic lipase, reducing dietary fat absorption. Structural characterization reveals that particular sugar compositions and molecular weight ranges confer lipase-inhibitory activity.

5. Polyphenol and flavonoid antioxidant action Phenolic and flavonoid compounds scavenge reactive oxygen species through hydrogen atom donation and electron transfer mechanisms, contributing to cellular protection against oxidative stress.

Key Active Compounds

Clinical Evidence Summary

Key Preclinical Studies

Evidence Limitations

• No human clinical trials have been conducted for any therapeutic indication. This is the primary evidence gap.
• Most immunomodulatory evidence comes from in vitro cell culture studies; in vivo animal models are limited.
• Polysaccharide structures and activities vary with extraction methods, cultivation substrates, and growing conditions.
• The mycoremediation research, while robust, relates to environmental applications rather than direct human therapeutic use.
• Long-term safety data for concentrated supplemental use are absent.
• Most research originates from Chinese institutions, reflecting the species’ commercial cultivation base; independent replication by other research groups is limited.

Safety Profile

General Assessment

S. rugosoannulata has been consumed as an edible mushroom for centuries across temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and is generally considered safe for culinary use. Its expanding commercial cultivation in China, with production reaching significant scale, supports its food safety profile. However, concentrated medicinal extracts have not been evaluated in human safety studies.

Contraindications

• Known allergy to Strophariaceae: Individuals with mushroom allergies should exercise caution.
• Harvest from contaminated environments: S. rugosoannulata’s mycoremediation capability means it can accumulate heavy metals and environmental pollutants. Mushrooms harvested from contaminated sites (near roads, industrial areas, or polluted water sources) should not be consumed.

Drug Interactions

• No specific drug interactions have been documented for S. rugosoannulata. However, given its immunomodulatory polysaccharide content:
  • Immunosuppressant medications: Theoretical concern for interference with immunosuppressive therapy. Severity: Theoretical; no documented cases.
  • Anticoagulants/antiplatelets: Some mushroom polysaccharides affect coagulation parameters. Severity: Theoretical; low.

Side Effects

• From culinary consumption: No adverse effects reported at standard dietary intake.
• From concentrated extracts: Insufficient data. Gastrointestinal disturbance is theoretically possible with high-dose polysaccharide supplementation.
• Heavy metal concerns: Careful consideration of potential heavy metal accumulation, anti-nutritional factors, and proper storage practices is essential to ensure consumer safety.

Toxicology

• No formal toxicological studies have been published for S. rugosoannulata extracts. The species is classified as edible with no known toxic compounds in the fruiting body. The mycelium produces lignin-modifying enzymes intended for environmental degradation, not human consumption in active enzyme form.

Clinical Dosage

Culinary Consumption

• Standard amount: 100-250 g fresh per serving as part of a regular diet
• Note: The wine cap is valued for its firm texture, nutty flavor, and substantial size. Best consumed when the cap is still intact and before full expansion. The annulus (ring) may be tough and is often removed before cooking.

Dried Fruiting Body Powder

• Estimated dose: 3-6 g/day (no clinical dosing data; extrapolated from other medicinal mushroom conventions)
• Note: No standardized supplemental products are commercially available for medicinal purposes

Polysaccharide Extract

• Research doses: In vitro studies used 25-200 mcg/mL concentrations of purified polysaccharide
• Note: No established human oral dosing; translation from in vitro concentrations to oral doses requires pharmacokinetic data that does not exist

Important Note

No human clinical dosing data exist for S. rugosoannulata. All dosing estimates are extrapolated from general medicinal mushroom practice. Consult a healthcare provider before supplementation.

Sources

• Springer (2023). Structural properties and immunomodulatory activity of an alpha-glucan purified from the fruiting body of Stropharia rugosoannulata. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture. doi:10.1186/s40538-023-00475-8
• Frontiers in Immunology (2022). Three-phase extraction of polysaccharide from Stropharia rugosoannulata: Process optimization, structural characterization and bioactivities. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.994706
• Springer (2025). The rise of Stropharia rugosoannulata industry in China: current state and prospects. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. doi:10.1007/s00253-025-13576-1
• MDPI Fungi (2023). Nutritional, Bioactive, and Flavor Components of Giant Stropharia (Stropharia rugoso-annulata): A Review. doi:10.3390/jof9080792
• Frontiers in Microbiology (2023). Mechanism of fungal remediation of wetland water: Stropharia rugosoannulata as promising fungal species for biofilters. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1234586
• Researchgate (2017). Stropharia rugosoannulata and Gymnopilus luteofolius: Promising fungal species for pharmaceutical biodegradation in contaminated water.
• Oxford Academic (2025). Protective effect of Stropharia rugosoannulata polysaccharide and its derivatives on dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. Food Quality and Safety. doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyaf014
• ScienceDirect (2025). Pancreatic lipase-inhibiting polysaccharide from Stropharia rugosoannulata: Structural characterization and interaction mechanisms.
• Wiley (2021). Evaluation of Nutritional Ingredients, Biologically Active Materials, and Pharmacological Activities of Stropharia rugosoannulata. Journal of Food Quality. doi:10.1155/2021/5478227
• MDPI Fungi (2025). Nutritional and Therapeutic Potential of Stropharia rugosoannulata and Macrolepiota procera.
• Fungal Biotec (2021). The nutrition, cultivation and biotechnology of Stropharia rugosoannulata. FGBT 1(1):2.
• Google Patents. US20050176583A1 — Delivery systems for mycotechnologies, mycofiltration and mycoremediation (Stamets).

Connections

• Turkey Tail — shared immunomodulatory polysaccharide mechanisms; turkey tail (PSK, PSP) represents a more clinically advanced model for polysaccharide-based immunotherapy
• Reishi — complementary immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory profiles; potential synergy for immune support protocols
• Maitake — another beta-glucan-rich edible mushroom with immunomodulatory and metabolic support applications
• Oyster Mushroom — fellow saprotrophic cultivated mushroom; shares some cultivation substrates and environmental applications
• Shiitake — lentinan polysaccharide provides a clinical reference point for mushroom-derived immunomodulatory polysaccharides